I. Brief Description
Over the years, programmable logic controllers ( PLCs ) have undergone a leap from wired logic to stored logic; their functions have evolved from weak to strong, achieving progress from logic control to digital control; and their application areas have expanded from small to large, enabling them to handle various tasks such as motion control, process control, and distributed control. Today's PLCs have significantly improved their capabilities in handling analog signals, digital calculations, human-machine interfaces, and networking, becoming the mainstream control equipment in the industrial control field and playing an increasingly important role in various industries.
II. Application Areas of PLC
Currently, PLCs are widely used in various industries both domestically and internationally, including steel, petroleum, chemical, power, building materials, machinery manufacturing, automotive, light textile, transportation, environmental protection, and cultural entertainment. Their usage can be mainly categorized as follows:
1. Switch logic control
It replaces traditional relay circuits to achieve logic control and sequential control, and can be used for the control of single devices, as well as for multi-machine group control and automated production lines. Examples include injection molding machines, printing presses, stapling machines, combination machine tools, grinding machines, packaging production lines, and electroplating production lines.
2. Industrial process control
In industrial production processes, there are continuously changing quantities (i.e., analog quantities) such as temperature, pressure, flow rate, liquid level, and speed. PLCs use corresponding A/D and D/A conversion modules and various control algorithms to process these analog quantities and complete closed-loop control. PID control is a commonly used method in general closed-loop control systems. Process control has wide applications in metallurgy, chemical engineering, heat treatment, boiler control, and other fields.
3. Motion control
PLCs can be used to control circular or linear motion. They typically use dedicated motion control modules, such as single-axis or multi-axis position control modules that can drive stepper motors or servo motors, and are widely used in various machinery, machine tools, robots , elevators, and other applications.
4. Data Processing
PLCs possess mathematical operations (including matrix operations, function operations, and logical operations), data transmission, data conversion, sorting, table lookup, and bit manipulation functions, enabling them to acquire, analyze, and process data. Data processing is commonly used in large-scale control systems in industries such as papermaking, metallurgy, and food processing.
5. Communication and Networking
PLC communication includes communication between PLCs and communication between PLCs and other intelligent devices. With the development of factory automation networks, modern PLCs all have communication interfaces, making communication very convenient.
III. Application Characteristics of PLC
1. High reliability and strong anti-interference ability
High reliability is a key performance characteristic of electrical control equipment. PLCs, employing modern large-scale integrated circuit technology and manufactured with stringent production processes, utilize advanced anti-interference technologies in their internal circuits, resulting in extremely high reliability. Compared to relay contactor systems of similar scale, control systems using PLCs reduce electrical wiring and switching contacts to hundreds or even thousands of times less, significantly decreasing the risk of failure. Furthermore, PLCs have built-in hardware fault self-detection functions, promptly issuing alarm messages when faults occur. In application software, users can also program fault self-diagnosis programs for peripheral devices, providing fault self-diagnosis protection for circuits and equipment other than the PLC. This ensures the overall system achieves extremely high reliability.
2. Complete accessories, comprehensive functions, and strong applicability.
Today, PLCs have evolved into a series of products of various sizes, suitable for industrial control applications of all scales. In addition to logic processing functions, most PLCs possess comprehensive data processing capabilities, enabling their use in various digital control fields. The proliferation of diverse functional units has allowed PLCs to penetrate various industrial control applications, including position control, temperature control, and CNC. Furthermore, the enhanced communication capabilities of PLCs and the development of human-machine interface technology have made it remarkably easy to construct various control systems using PLCs.
3. Easy to learn and use, and widely welcomed by engineering and technical personnel.
PLCs are industrial control devices designed for industrial and mining enterprises. They have easy-to-use interfaces, and their programming languages are readily accepted by engineering technicians. The graphical symbols and representations of ladder diagram language are quite similar to those of relay circuit diagrams, making it convenient for people unfamiliar with electronic circuits, computer principles, and assembly language to engage in industrial control.
4. The system design requires minimal workload, is easy to maintain, and is readily adaptable.
PLCs replace wired logic with stored logic, greatly reducing external wiring of control equipment, significantly shortening the design and construction cycle of control systems, and making daily maintenance easier. More importantly, it makes it possible to change the production process by modifying the program on the same equipment. This is particularly suitable for multi-variety, small-batch production applications.
IV. Issues to be aware of when using PLC
A PLC is a device used for automated control in industrial production. Generally, it can be used directly in industrial environments without any special precautions. However, despite its high reliability and strong anti-interference capabilities, as mentioned above, harsh production environments with strong electromagnetic interference, or improper installation and use, can lead to program or calculation errors, resulting in erroneous inputs and outputs. This can cause equipment malfunctions and misoperations, thus compromising the normal operation of the PLC. To improve the reliability of a PLC control system, PLC manufacturers need to enhance the anti-interference capabilities of their equipment. Furthermore, careful attention must be paid to design, installation, and maintenance; multi-party cooperation is essential to effectively address these issues and enhance the system's anti-interference performance. Therefore, the following issues should be noted during use:
1. Work Environment
(1) Temperature
PLCs require an ambient temperature of 0~55°C. When installing, they should not be placed under components that generate a lot of heat, and there should be enough space around them for ventilation and heat dissipation.
(2) Humidity
To ensure the insulation performance of the PLC, the relative humidity of the air should be less than 85% (no condensation).
(3) Vibration
The PLC should be kept away from strong vibration sources to prevent frequent or continuous vibrations with a frequency of 10-55Hz. When vibration is unavoidable in the operating environment, vibration damping measures must be taken, such as using damping adhesive.
(4) Air
Avoid environments with corrosive and flammable gases, such as hydrogen chloride and hydrogen sulfide. For environments with a high concentration of dust or corrosive gases, the PLC can be installed in a well-sealed control room or control cabinet.
(5) Power supply
PLCs have a certain degree of resistance to interference from power lines. In environments with high reliability requirements or severe power interference, a shielded isolation transformer can be installed to reduce interference between the equipment and ground. Most PLCs have a 24V DC output for the input terminals. When using an external DC power supply for the input terminals, a DC regulated power supply should be selected. This is because ordinary rectified and filtered power supplies, due to ripple, can easily cause the PLC to receive incorrect information.
2. Interference and its sources in the control system
Electromagnetic interference in the field is one of the most common and easily detrimental factors to the reliability of PLC control systems. As the saying goes, to treat the symptoms, one must first address the root cause; only by identifying the problem can a solution be proposed. Therefore, it is essential to know the source of the field interference.
(1) Interference sources and general classification
Interference sources affecting PLC control systems mostly originate in areas with drastic changes in current or voltage. This is because changes in current generate magnetic fields, which in turn produce electromagnetic radiation on the equipment; changes in magnetic fields generate current, and electromagnetic waves are produced at high speeds. Electromagnetic interference is typically classified into common-mode interference and differential-mode interference based on its interference mode. Common-mode interference is the potential difference between the signal and ground, mainly formed by the superposition of common-mode (same-direction) voltages induced on the signal lines by grid interference, ground potential difference, and spatial electromagnetic radiation. Common-mode voltage can be converted into differential-mode voltage through asymmetrical circuits, directly affecting measurement and control signals and causing component damage (this is the main reason for the high failure rate of some system I/O modules). This common-mode interference can be DC or AC. Differential-mode interference refers to the interference voltage acting between the two poles of the signal, mainly formed by the coupling induction of spatial electromagnetic fields between signals and the voltage formed by the conversion of common-mode interference by unbalanced circuits. This interference, superimposed on the signal, directly affects the measurement and control accuracy.
(2) Main sources and pathways of interference in PLC systems
strong electrical interference
The normal power supply for PLC systems is provided by the power grid. Due to the wide coverage of the power grid, it is susceptible to electromagnetic interference from all directions, which can induce voltage on the lines. In particular, changes within the power grid, such as surges from knife switch operations, the start-up and shutdown of large power equipment, harmonics caused by AC/DC drives, and transient impacts from power grid short circuits, are all transmitted to the primary side of the power source through the transmission lines.
cabinet interference
High-voltage electrical appliances, large inductive loads, and messy wiring inside the control cabinet can all easily cause some degree of interference to the PLC.
Interference introduced from signal lines
In addition to transmitting valid information, various signal transmission lines connected to the PLC control system are always subject to external interference signals. This interference mainly occurs through two pathways: first, interference from the power grid introduced through the transmitter's power supply or the power supply of shared signal instruments, which is often overlooked; second, interference induced by spatial electromagnetic radiation, i.e., external induced interference on the signal lines, which is very serious. Interference introduced by signals can cause abnormal I/O signal operation and a significant reduction in measurement accuracy, and in severe cases, can damage components.
Interference from grounding system disorder
Grounding is one of the effective means to improve the electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) of electronic equipment. Proper grounding can suppress the effects of electromagnetic interference and prevent the equipment from emitting interference; while incorrect grounding can introduce serious interference signals, making the PLC system unable to work properly.
Interference from within the PLC system
It is mainly generated by the mutual electromagnetic radiation between internal components and circuits, such as the mutual radiation of logic circuits and its impact on analog circuits, the mutual influence between analog ground and logic ground, and the mismatch between components.
Inverter interference
First, the harmonics generated during the startup and operation of the frequency converter cause conducted interference to the power grid, resulting in voltage distortion and affecting the power supply quality. Second, the output of the frequency converter generates strong electromagnetic radiation interference, affecting the normal operation of surrounding equipment.
3. Main anti-interference measures
(1) Proper handling of power supply to suppress interference introduced by the power grid.
To mitigate grid interference introduced by the power supply, a shielded isolation transformer with a 1:1 turns ratio can be installed to reduce interference between the equipment and ground. An LC filter circuit can also be connected in series at the power input. (See Figure 1.)
(2) Installation and wiring
● Power lines, control lines, and PLC power and I/O lines should be wired separately. The isolation transformer should be connected to the PLC and I/O lines using double-insulated wires. PLC I/O lines and high-power lines should be routed separately. If they must be in the same cable tray, AC and DC lines should be bundled separately. If conditions permit, separate cable trays are best, as this maximizes spatial distance and minimizes interference.
● The PLC should be kept away from strong interference sources such as welding machines, high-power silicon rectifiers, and large power equipment, and should not be installed in the same switch cabinet as high-voltage electrical appliances. Inside the cabinet, the PLC should be kept away from power lines (the distance between them should be greater than 200mm). Inductive loads installed in the same cabinet as the PLC, such as the coils of high-power relays and contactors, should be connected in parallel with an RC arc suppression circuit.
● PLC inputs and outputs should ideally be wired separately, and digital and analog signals should also be wired separately. Shielded cables should be used for transmitting analog signals, and the shielding layer should be grounded at one or both ends. The grounding resistance should be less than 1/10 of the shielding layer resistance.
● Do not use the same cable for AC output lines and DC output lines. Output lines should be kept as far away as possible from high-voltage lines and power lines, and should not run in parallel.
(3) Wiring of I/O terminals
Input wiring
● Input wiring should generally not be too long. However, if there is little environmental interference and the voltage drop is not significant, the input wiring can be appropriately longer.
● Input and output lines must not use the same cable; input and output lines must be separate.
●Use normally open contacts to connect to the input terminal whenever possible, so that the ladder diagram is consistent with the relay schematic diagram and easy to read.
Output connection
● Output wiring is divided into independent output and common output. Different types and voltage levels of output voltage can be used in different groups. However, outputs in the same group can only use the same type and voltage level of power supply.
●Since the output components of the PLC are encapsulated on a printed circuit board and connected to a terminal block, short-circuiting the load connected to the output components will burn out the printed circuit board.
●When using relay output, the size of the inductive load it bears will affect the lifespan of the relay. Therefore, when using inductive loads, appropriate selection should be made, or an isolation relay should be added.
● The output load of the PLC may generate interference, so measures must be taken to control it, such as freewheeling tube protection for DC output, RC snubber circuit for AC output, and bypass resistor protection for transistor and bidirectional thyristor output.
(4) Correctly select the grounding point and improve the grounding system.
Proper grounding is essential for ensuring the reliable operation of a PLC, preventing damage from accidental voltage surges. Grounding typically serves two purposes: safety and interference suppression. A well-designed grounding system is one of the key measures for PLC control systems to resist electromagnetic interference.
The grounding wires of a PLC control system include system ground, shield ground, AC ground, and protective ground. A chaotic grounding system interferes with the PLC system mainly because of uneven potential distribution at various grounding points. Potential differences exist between different grounding points, causing ground loop currents and affecting normal system operation. For example, a cable shield must be grounded at one point. If both ends (A and B) of the cable shield are grounded, a potential difference exists, and current flows through the shield. In abnormal conditions such as lightning strikes, the ground current will be even greater.
Furthermore, the shielding layer, grounding wire, and earth may form a closed loop. Under the influence of a changing magnetic field, induced currents will appear within the shielding layer, interfering with the signal loop through the coupling between the shielding layer and the core wire. If the system grounding is inconsistent with other grounding methods, the resulting ground loop current may create unequal potential distributions on the ground wire, affecting the normal operation of the logic and analog circuits within the PLC. PLCs have low logic voltage interference tolerance; interference from logic ground potential distributions can easily affect PLC logic operations and data storage, causing data corruption, program crashes, or system freezes. Analog ground potential distributions will lead to decreased measurement accuracy, causing serious distortion and malfunctions in signal measurement and control.
●Safely grounded or power supply grounded
Connecting the power cord's grounding terminal to the cabinet's grounding point constitutes a safety ground. In the event of a power leak or the cabinet becoming energized, the current can be conducted to the ground through this safety ground, preventing harm to people.
●System grounding
The PLC controller is grounded to ensure it is at the same potential as all the devices it controls; this is called system grounding. The grounding resistance value must not exceed 4Ω. Generally, the PLC device system ground and the negative terminal of the switching power supply in the control cabinet should be connected together as the control system ground.
●Signal and shielding grounding
Generally, signal lines must have a unique reference ground. Shielded cables, when encountering situations where conducted interference may occur, must also be uniquely grounded locally or in the control room to prevent the formation of "ground loops." When the signal source is grounded, the shielding layer should be grounded on the signal side; if not grounded, it should be grounded on the PLC side. When there are joints in the middle of the signal line, the shielding layer should be securely connected and insulated, and multiple grounding points must be avoided. When shielded twisted-pair cables for multiple measurement point signals are connected to a multi-core twisted-pair shielded cable, each shielding layer should be interconnected and insulated, and a suitable single-point grounding point should be selected.
(5) Suppression of frequency converter interference
Interference handling for frequency converters generally involves the following methods:
Adding an isolation transformer is mainly for dealing with conducted interference from the power source, and can block most of the conducted interference before it reaches the isolation transformer.
Using filters provides strong anti-interference capabilities and prevents interference from the device itself from being conducted to the power supply. Some filters also have peak voltage absorption functions.
Using an output reactor, adding an AC reactor between the frequency converter and the motor, is mainly to reduce the electromagnetic radiation generated by the frequency converter output during energy transmission, which could affect the normal operation of other equipment.
V. Conclusion
Interference in PLC control systems is a highly complex issue. Therefore, anti-interference design must comprehensively consider various factors to effectively suppress interference and ensure the normal operation of the PLC control system. With the continuous expansion of PLC application areas, efficient and reliable PLC usage has become a crucial factor in its development. In the 21st century, PLCs will experience even greater development, with a wider variety of products and more complete specifications. Through perfect human-machine interfaces and comprehensive communication equipment, they will better adapt to the needs of various industrial control applications. As an important component of automation control networks and internationally recognized networks, PLCs will play an increasingly significant role in the field of industrial control.
This section answers frequently asked questions about the hardware components of a PLC, which will be of great help in future actual wiring and installation operations.
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Q: What is the hardware structure of a PLC?
A: The hardware composition of a PLC is similar to that of a microcomputer. Its main unit consists of several major parts, including a CPU board, memory, input/output (I/O) interface, and power supply. It can be equipped with external devices such as programmers, graphic displays, and communication interfaces (see hardware diagram).
2. Question: What is a CPU? What is its function?
A: The CPU, also known as the Central Processing Unit, is composed of one or more large-scale integrated circuit chips. It is equivalent to the human brain and is the core part of the PLC. The function of the CPU is to issue various commands to various parts of the system through the interface and software, and at the same time perform cyclic detection of the measured parameters, data processing, control calculation, alarm handling, and logical judgment, so as to control the entire working process of the PLC. At present, most small PLCs use 8-bit or 16-bit microcontrollers as CPUs.
3. Question: RAM, ROM, EPROM, and EEPROM are all memory, what are their respective characteristics?
A: RAM stands for Random Access Memory, which is generally CMOS type. It consumes very little power and is usually backed up by a lithium battery in PLCs. The program will not be lost when the power is off. ROM stands for Read-Only Memory, in which the system program is fixed and cannot be changed by the user. It is unaffected by power failure. EPROM stands for Erasable Memory, which requires a dedicated writer and eraser for writing and erasing, which is inconvenient for the user. EEPROM stands for Electrically Erasable Read-Only Memory, in which the program can be written and erased by a programmer.
IV. Question: What are the I/O ports in a PLC? What are their characteristics?
A: I/O interface is short for input (IN)/output (OUT) interface, which is the link between the PLC host and the controlled object for information exchange. The PLC exchanges data with external devices through the I/O interface. The input and output signals of the PLC are of three types: switch quantity, analog quantity, and digital quantity. All input and output signals are isolated by optoelectronics, which greatly enhances the anti-interference capability of the PLC.
5. Question: What are the common output formats of a PLC? What are their characteristics?
A: Common output types include relay output, thyristor (SSR) output, and transistor output. Their characteristics are as follows: Relay output: The CPU drives the relay coil, causing the contacts to close, allowing external power to drive the external load through the closed contacts. It has zero open-circuit leakage current, a slow response time (approximately 10ms), and can handle larger external loads. Transistor output: The CPU uses optocouplers to switch the transistor on and off to control the external DC load. It has a fast response time (approximately 0.2ms) and can handle smaller external loads. SCR output: The CPU uses optocouplers to switch the three-terminal bidirectional thyristor on and off to control the external AC load. It has a large open-circuit leakage current and a relatively fast response time (approximately 1ms).
6. Question: What is a programmable control system? What components does it consist of?
A: A programmable control system (PLC) is a control system with a programmable logic controller (PLC) as its core unit. It typically consists of a PLC, a programmer, signal input components, and output execution components, as shown in the PLC control system diagram (using the FX2 PLC as an example). A PLC allows the controlled object's operation to be changed by modifying the PLC's user program without altering the system's hardware wiring, greatly improving the control system's flexibility.
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